THE Right to Information Act, 2005, in its statement of objectives recognized that ‘democracy requires an informed citizenry and transparency of information, which are vital to its functioning and also to contain corruption and hold governments and their instrumentalities accountable to the governed.’ When presenting the Bill for the Right to Information in Parliament on 11 May 2005, in his vision of what the act would achieve, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh said pointedly, ‘I believe that the passage of this bill will see the dawn of a new era in our processes of government… an era which will eliminate the scourge of corruption.’
There is widespread consensus that good governance must be participatory, transparent and accountable.1 The present system in India, however, is firmly grounded on mistrust. The question may be asked that if governance is to be participatory, who the participants are. It is our view that in the current economic environment participants in governance include the political leadership, the bureaucracy, business, the media, financial institutions and the security apparatus, but above all, and particularly in a democracy, the people themselves. Governance is the manner of delivering services, and the clientele – or customer – with refinements honed in each case to the particular service delivered, is a section of the public. This concept is in itself a paradigm shift from the earlier concept prevalent in India. Unfortunately, it is more often recognized only as an adjustment and not a shift as such.
The reason for this can be found in the legacy of governance in India, stemming directly at the district level from the Mughal period,2 adapted and extended with an archaic Secretariat system modelled on the Westminster system, in the colonial phase. Under the Mughal empire the purpose of governance was the service of an individual. Under the Crown, its primary objective became to promote colonial interests. An elitist structure informed both systems and continues to survive. Unfortunately the welfare state, introduced in India post-independence, was strongly influenced by the wartime licensing legacy for distributing shortages. The management of the economy, therefore, remained rooted in the concept of shortages. No wonder corruption remains rampant.
It is important to remember why a state requires a bureaucracy in the first place. The need for orderly government is no doubt the bedrock of the need for any bureaucracy. But the concept of ‘orderly’ is in itself heavily inclined towards status quo. A bureaucracy born and bred under imperial diktat will, unless otherwise induced or even compelled, veer towards retaining ‘established practice’. And so we find that in developing countries like India, even though the need for significant infrastructure investments has been recognized and appropriate institutions have evolved financial (and risk) evaluation frameworks, a large number of projects do not get ‘closed’.
The India Infrastructure Report, 1996, also known as the Rakesh Mohan Report, flagged the importance of infrastructure for India’s policy-makers: ‘Availability of adequate infrastructure facilities is vital for the acceleration of economic development of the country.’ And why this is not happening fast enough is clearly a result of the working of a bureaucracy hamstrung by corruption. Hence the urge to enact legislation which can control, even if not ‘eliminate’ this incubus.
Good governance is the means adopted to deliver services in a manner acceptable as efficient to the public, and as cost effective to the government. And yet, despite launching the most massive programmes for poverty alleviation, even poverty ‘eradication’ undertaken in India under a utopian socialist ideal, these have hitherto foundered on the reef of corruption.
Does this mean that the current structure is not amenable to present needs? If so, what should replace it? Assuming that it needs to be replaced, the most important step must be to develop a consensus on the objectives to be met. This must go beyond mere rhetoric like that frequently employed by intellectuals who evade basic issues, asserting that the bureaucracy thrives by substitution of ‘good ideas’ with ‘bad ideas’!
To begin with, each participant in governance must be aware of what is expected of everyone involved. But participation in governance is far too often seen as a struggle for sharing in the pelf of power: for example, there is the perceived conflict of generalist vs. specialist. This brings us to the basic proposition that governance must be distinct from the exercise of power. Once this is understood, it becomes easier to see why perceived needs are not being met by the system even though widely understood. Now the RTI Act gives a clear vehicle through which perceived needs, through the medium of information sought, can be heard and become an instrument for change. It is already beginning to have that effect, particularly in Delhi which has had an RTI Act since 2001.
That is also why the new flagship programme of the United ‘Progressive’ Alliance, the NREGA, has been sought to be married to the RTI in every phase of implementation so as to ensure transparency. The results thus far have been mixed, but nevertheless in many states, effective use of the principle of suo moto disclosure and the pursuit of social audit by a dedicated citizenry, both instruments of implementation of the RTI Act, gives reason for hope.
Government has so far been the kingpin in all substantial development activity in India, including infrastructure. Unfortunately, the widely held recognition of the need for infrastructure investment has been sullied by pervasive mistrust. Hence, recognition of the need for investment has been tempered with caution.
A major factor has been a lack of full knowledge or grasp within government of the dynamics or indeed the mechanics of needed investment. This does not imply that all those in key positions in government lack this understanding. However, the government as an entity with antiquated procedures and structure tends, like all bureaucracies, to resist not facilitate change. This lack of understanding is unfortunately most pronounced at the decision-making level.
The answer, of course, cannot lie in throwing the baby out with the bathwater. But then, what do we have as a replacement? What is needed, therefore, is a considered study of the challenges faced and the changes required.
The fundamental question is: Whose needs are we talking about? Is this the user, a set of users, the government, contractors, law firms, funding agencies or indeed the media?
At a high level conference of chief ministers held in New Delhi in 1997, there was general consensus – rare in such a politically diverse gathering – on the need for reform to bring about people-friendly governance. But grasp of details of what this might mean remained vague. Now the RTI legislation gives both the government and those among the public who need it, a mirror of what people need, thus placing before government an incomparable instrument, hitherto unavailable, to determine public need on the basis of the trend and the content of applications received from members of the public, and the opening of the possibilities of interaction at all levels.
As mentioned earlier, the bureaucracy is intrinsically resistant to change. 1991 was a year of near wholesale delicensing of industry. The Directorate General of Trade and Development (DGTD) was the authority whose sole activity involved the processing of license applications. The Joint Secretary (Administration) in the Department of Industrial Development, Union Ministry of Industry was asked to examine the restructuring of the department in light of the functional change. As would appear eminently sensible to any layman, the recommendation was that the department now served no purpose and should be closed down. The only matter for consideration was the relocation of the 800 personnel working therein.
The suggestion was received with shock by every participant at the weekly senior officers’ meeting held every Tuesday with the Secretary Industry. The JS was asked to work out a more ‘realistic’ proposal calling for the relocation of not more than a third of the personnel, and simultaneously find alternative work for the department just so that it could continue!
Over the years, for political and ideological reasons, importance was given to small scale industries without reference to their efficiency. There were entire sectors reserved for government only – power, water supply, energy, fuel supply, telecom, television, and radio broadcasting.
From what has been described it is clear that what is in the process of emerging is transformation from ‘Inspector Raj’ to ‘state withdrawal’, which is a radical shift. This shift needs to be hastened to help devise policies that are growth oriented. No one will invest huge sums in infrastructure projects if the growth prospects are not bright. How this is to be achieved will require political skill and planned human resource development.
Unfortunately, far from eliminating corruption, reform towards commercialization has further fomented it. Earlier, the demand for gratification was specific, virtually standardized and understood by all. With the drying up of original sources, and the retention of the staff, corruption has found new channels, thus flowing into areas earlier considered immune. There are on the one hand elements within government working to expose corruption, while others are working to suppress such exposure – some for suspect reasons, others to prevent victimization, which also takes place. This trend is accentuated by political uncertainty, but not caused by it, as is borne out by relative political stability over the past decade.
In India, we have over the years moved towards an information revolution. India’s Constitution, in its Fundamental Rights, carries Article 19(1) (a), the Freedom of Expression, which the courts have held to include the right to information, thus accounting for the naming of India’s legislation as ‘right’ and not merely ‘freedom’ which had been the term used in relation to this legislation in nations across the world hitherto.
In the 1970s, under the government’s declared policy of garibi hatao, ambitious poverty alleviation programmes were launched across the country. Almost in tandem, though unnoticed by many in its early years, a revolution in information technology had begun to gather pace by the late 1980s. This was accompanied by a withdrawal of government monopoly over information and broadcasting in the 1990s. These factors opened the ground to civil society initiatives, most notably by the MKSS in Rajasthan, led by the Garboesque Aruna Roy, a former civil servant, who threw up the relative comforts of service in government to give herself wholly to serving the peasantry. With the opening of the media came the Freedom of Information Act piloted through Parliament by Arun Jaitley of the NDA government in 2002, but never enforced. The UPA government, then in its very infancy, revised the law and today we have the Right to Information Act, 2005.
The Supreme Court has in repeated judgments held information to be a fundamental right, the most significant judgment in terms of its consequences being the State of U.P. vs. Raj Singh, 1975 where Mathew J. on behalf of the bench held that: ‘In a government of responsibility like ours, where all agents of the public must be responsible for their conduct, there can be but few secrets. The people of this country have a right to know every public act, every thing that is done in a public way, by their public functionaries. to cover with a veil of secrecy the common routine business, is not in the interest of public.’
What then is information and how is it defined in the act? ‘Information’ under Section 2(f), ‘means any material in any form including records, documents, memos, e-mails, opinions, advices, press releases, circulars, orders, logbooks, contracts, reports, papers, samples, models, data material held in any electronic form and information relating to any private body which can be accessed by a public authority under any other law for the time being in force.’
The key concepts are therefore transparency and accountability in the working of every public authority, the right of any citizen of India to request access to information and the corresponding duty of government to meet the request, except the information exempted under Section 8 and departments excluded from coverage under Section 24, listed in the Second Schedule. It is the duty of government to pro-actively make available key information to all. But this act is not the responsibility of government alone. It brings a heavy responsibility to bear upon all sections of civil society, notably the citizenry, NGOs and the media.
In the ultimate analysis it can hardly be denied that economic development and indeed national security are synonymous with the economic welfare and security of the people of our country, which all these institutions serve. And if that is conceded, it also follows that if the people are the object of development, it is they who must share responsibility for ensuring that this objective is met.
In the course of presentations at the chief ministers’ conference on 15 April 2005 it became increasingly clear that local self-government be developed as the primary instrument to counter a disturbing and growing welter of terrorism nurtured by discontent. 157 districts were identified by the National Security Advisor as Naxalite entrenched. According to the IB, Jharkhand, which had with impunity been circumventing the laws on Panchayati Raj, accounted for a whopping 25 per cent of the incidents of terrorist violence in the country. Jan Adalats in Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh and Praja Adalats in AP were actually dispensing justice and awarding death sentences. All this is but evidence of a growing gulf between government and people.
The Right to Information Act fundamentally restructures the debate on governance from what should be revealed to what must be kept secret and undoubtedly reflects the potency of India’s vibrant democracy, a concept never bettered as a means to involve people in their own governance. It thus seeks to supplant the colonial Official Secrets Act of 1923 that had thus far been the touchstone of confidentiality in government. The Central Information Commission can, under Section 19(8)(a)(iii), require every public authority to ‘publish certain information or categories of information’ under the act. Should the public authority not comply, Section 19(8)(c) gives the commission the power to ‘impose any of the penalties’ provided under this act.
I have spoken of suo moto disclosure. Primary among the obligations that the act brings to bear upon every public authority is laid down in Section 4, Subsection (1)(a) which states that, ‘Every public authority shall – (a) maintain all its records duly catalogued and indexed in a manner and form which facilitates the right to information under this act and ensure that all records that are appropriate to be computerized are, within a reasonable time and subject to availability of resources, computerized and connected through a network all over the country on different systems so that access to such records is facilitated.’ Section 4(1)(b) then goes on to specify seventeen heads demanding suo moto disclosure, preferably on the internet, to be updated every year. What then is a public authority?
A public authority means any authority or institution of self-government established or constituted: (a) by or under the Constitution; (b) by any other law made by Parliament; (c) by any other law made by state legislature; (d) by notification issued or order made by the appropriate government and includes any body owned, controlled or substantially financed, and non-government organization substantially financed directly or indirectly by funds provided by the appropriate government.
In other words, a public authority is not simply a government department. From such authorities what can be accessed is what is defined as the ‘right to information’, which means that every public authority shall provide access to any citizen of India, which includes the right to inspect works, documents, records; take notes, extracts or certified copies of documents or records; take certified samples of material; obtain information in form of printouts, diskettes, floppies, tapes, video cassettes or in any other electronic mode or through printouts [Section 2(j)].
It is, of course, necessary that certain information held in trust by a public authority not be placed in the public domain to ensure that government continues to provide security and balanced development, which after all is what any public will seek from those it has empowered by the process of election in a democracy. Therefore, Section 8 of the act holds that the following is exempt from disclosure:
* Information, disclosure of which would prejudicially affect the sovereignty and integrity of India, the security, strategic, scientific or economic interest of the state, relations with foreign states or lead to incitement of an offence.
* Information that has been expressly forbidden to be published by any court of law or tribunal or the disclosure of which may constitute contempt of court.
* Information, the disclosure of which would cause a breach of privilege of Parliament or the state legislature.
* Information, including commercial confidence, trade secrets or intellectual property, the disclosure of which would harm the competitive position of a third party, unless the competent authority is satisfied that larger public interest warrants the disclosure of such information.
* Information available to a person in his fiduciary relationship, unless the competent authority is satisfied that the larger public interest warrants the disclosure of such information
* Information received in confidence from foreign government.
* Information, which would impede the process of investigation or apprehension or prosecution of offenders.
* Cabinet papers including records of deliberations of the Council of Ministers, Secretaries and other officers.
* Information, which relates to personal information the disclosure of which has no relationship to any public activity or interest, or which would cause unwarranted invasion of privacy of an individual.
* Notwithstanding any of these exemptions or the Officials Secrets Act, 1923, a public authority may allow access to information, if public interest in disclosure outweighs the harm to the protected interests – Section 8(2).
* Infringe copyright, except of the state (Section 9).
* Where practicable, part of record can be released – Section 10.
* Intelligence and security agencies exempt under Section 24, except in cases where corruption or human rights violation is alleged.
* Third party information to be released after giving notice to third party.
But most exempt information is expected to be released after 20 years, with some exceptions, particularly those weighing on national security. Besides, under the RTI Act, 2005, notwithstanding anything in the Official Secrets Act, nor any of the exemptions described above, a public authority may allow access to information, if public interest in disclosure outweighs the harm to any protected interests, thus putting the public’s interest foremost. The RTI Act then takes precedence over the Official Secrets Act, an offspring of colonial India, which treated the public as an adversary of government and gave official sanctity allowing corruption behind firmly closed doors.
But other than this, withholding any information knowingly or providing access while violating the time limit mandated under the act, will bring with it penalties imposable by the Information Commission on Public Information Officers or officers asked to assist the PIO, who have failed to do so. There is also compensation for damages. There is, however, no criminal liability, and immunity from legal action for action taken ‘in good faith [Section 21].
This act provides universal access to the poor by ensuring that the fee remains at a reasonable level although in the act itself the quantum is not specified. There is at any rate no fee for those below the poverty line. It provides for Assistant Public Information Officers at sub-district levels to facilitate filing of applications and appeals. Post offices have been so designated. There is a provision to reduce oral requests into writing together with a mandate to officials to provide all required assistance, including to disabled persons. Besides, information is to be provided in local languages.
Given the presumption that access to information is today a matter of right, there is no need to specify a reason for seeking information or personal details other than necessary for correspondence, but availing of this right is open only to citizens of India [Section 3].
What then are the responsibilities of a public authority? These are many, but among them are raising awareness, educating and training and to develop and organizing educational programmes to advance the understanding of the public, particularly the disadvantaged, to exercise their right to information.
Government is also expected to encourage public authorities to participate in programmes, promote timely effective dissemination of accurate information on activities, train CPIOs and produce relevant training materials, user guides and related matter. The latter is being executed by the Centre for Good Governance, Hyderabad.
The Right to Information Act is not an anti-corruption act. But it goes without saying that given the level of transparency that it seeks to achieve, not only in its objectives but through its own mechanisms, it seeks to make governance the people’s own. I have been at pains to describe how this is now an essential element of any government that claims to be a democracy. But by placing the public in charge, it will in the ultimate analysis become the instrument of any watchdog to check corruption, make all instruments of governance accountable, and force those using the money raised from the citizenry, which is what public funds are, answerable to the public. It establishes a master-servant relationship between public and government. The future then glows with an effervescent cadence of hope. Will India’s public grasp the opportunity?
Showing posts with label PUB. ADMIN NOTES. Show all posts
Showing posts with label PUB. ADMIN NOTES. Show all posts
Friday, June 26, 2009
Friday, June 5, 2009
P.A Communication
COMMUNICATION
It is a process of transmitting information, thoughts, opinions, messages, facts ideas or emotions and understanding from one person, place or thing to another person, place or thing. Simon observes, “Communication may formally be defined as any process whereby decisional premises are transmitted from one member of an organisation to another.” Chester Barnard viewed communication as the means by which people are linked together in an organisation to achieve a common purpose.
Types of Communication:
Written or Verbal Communication:
Written communication is done when the two parties are not directly connected. Also it provides a permanent record and at times be referred to as evidence. The merits of verbal communication are:
It is a time and money saving device
It is comparatively more effective, since there is a personal touch
Easier understandability
Best suited in case of emergency situations.
Formal and Informal communication:
Formal communications are those that are ‘official’, that are a part of the recognized communication system which is involved in the operation of the organisation. They may be verbal or written. Informal communications grow out of the social interactions among people who work together. Such communications provide useful information for events to come, in the form of grapevine.
Keith Davis has highlighted the phenomena of grapevine in an organisation and has identifies four types of grapevine networks- single strand, gossip, probability and cluster.
Downward, Upward and Crosswire Communication:
Downward communication flows from people at higher levels to those at lower levels and is also called superior-subordinate communication. Upward communication travels from subordinates to superiors and continues up the organisational hierarchy. It is known as subordinate-initiated communication. Whereas the downward system is highly directive- giving orders, instructions, information and procedures- the upward system is characteristically non-directive in nature. While bureaucratic authority facilitates a directive atmosphere, a free- participative supervisory approach is necessary for subordinate initiated communication.
Crosswire communication includes the horizontal flow of information, among people on the same or similar organisational levels and the diagonal flow, among persons at different levels who have no direct reporting relationships with one another. This kind of communication is used to speed up information flow, to improve understanding and to co-ordinate efforts for the achievement of organisational objectives. Fayol introduced the concept of ‘Gangplank’ in organisational communication which means direct interaction between two peer entities of same level and not through the long formal channel. Gangplank helps in quicker and more efficient service.
It is a process of transmitting information, thoughts, opinions, messages, facts ideas or emotions and understanding from one person, place or thing to another person, place or thing. Simon observes, “Communication may formally be defined as any process whereby decisional premises are transmitted from one member of an organisation to another.” Chester Barnard viewed communication as the means by which people are linked together in an organisation to achieve a common purpose.
Types of Communication:
Written or Verbal Communication:
Written communication is done when the two parties are not directly connected. Also it provides a permanent record and at times be referred to as evidence. The merits of verbal communication are:
It is a time and money saving device
It is comparatively more effective, since there is a personal touch
Easier understandability
Best suited in case of emergency situations.
Formal and Informal communication:
Formal communications are those that are ‘official’, that are a part of the recognized communication system which is involved in the operation of the organisation. They may be verbal or written. Informal communications grow out of the social interactions among people who work together. Such communications provide useful information for events to come, in the form of grapevine.
Keith Davis has highlighted the phenomena of grapevine in an organisation and has identifies four types of grapevine networks- single strand, gossip, probability and cluster.
Downward, Upward and Crosswire Communication:
Downward communication flows from people at higher levels to those at lower levels and is also called superior-subordinate communication. Upward communication travels from subordinates to superiors and continues up the organisational hierarchy. It is known as subordinate-initiated communication. Whereas the downward system is highly directive- giving orders, instructions, information and procedures- the upward system is characteristically non-directive in nature. While bureaucratic authority facilitates a directive atmosphere, a free- participative supervisory approach is necessary for subordinate initiated communication.
Crosswire communication includes the horizontal flow of information, among people on the same or similar organisational levels and the diagonal flow, among persons at different levels who have no direct reporting relationships with one another. This kind of communication is used to speed up information flow, to improve understanding and to co-ordinate efforts for the achievement of organisational objectives. Fayol introduced the concept of ‘Gangplank’ in organisational communication which means direct interaction between two peer entities of same level and not through the long formal channel. Gangplank helps in quicker and more efficient service.
It is a process of transmitting information, thoughts, opinions, messages, facts ideas or emotions and understanding from one person, place or thing to another person, place or thing. Simon observes, “Communication may formally be defined as any process whereby decisional premises are transmitted from one member of an organisation to another.” Chester Barnard viewed communication as the means by which people are linked together in an organisation to achieve a common purpose.
Barnard’s Contribution:
Barnard interwove communication into his concept of authority. He listed seven specific communication factors which are especially important in establishing and maintaining objective authority in an organisation. They are:
The channels of communication should be definitely known.
There should be a definite formal channel of communication to every member of an organisation.
The line of communication should be as direct and short as possible.
The complete formal line of communication should normally be used.
The persons serving as communication centers should be competent.
The line of communication should not be interrupted while the organisation is functioning.
Every communication should be authenticated.
Norbert Weiner: Cybernetics
According to Norbert, organisational systems move in the direction of ‘positive entropy’. That is, the organisations have a neutral tendency towards disorder and disintegration. This tendency can be arrested through systematic information processing. Thus, information is an antidote to positive entropy and enables an organisational system to reach a state of ‘negative entropy’ that is moving towards order and integration. He described an adoptive system (including an organisation) as utterly dependent upon measurement and correction through feedback.
Terry’s eight factors for effective communication:
Inform yourself fully
Establish mutual trust
Find a common ground of experience
Use mutually known words
Have regard for context
Secure and hold receiver’s attention
Employ examples and visual aids
Practice delaying reactions.
Millet advocated six essential factors for effective communication:
Clear
Consistent with the receiver’s expectations
Adequate
Timely
Uniform
Acceptance...
P.A Decision making
Decision Making
It is a process of selection and the aim is to select the best alternatives. This process consists of four interrelated phases: explorative (searching for decision occasions), speculative (identifying the factors affecting the decision problem), evaluative (analyzing and weighing alternative courses of action), and selective (choice of the best course of action). In “The functions of the Executive”, Chester Barnard gave a comprehensive analytical treatment of decision making and noted, “The processes of decision are largely techniques of narrowing choices”. Following features of decision making can be identified:
It is a goal-oriented process.
A decision problem arises only when there are two or more alternatives.
It is a dynamic process. The techniques used for choice vary with the type of problem involved and the time availability for its solution.
It is situational. Decisions may change according to the circumstances.
It is a continuous process. Indeed, administrators job is perpetually a decision making exercise.
Decisions are the products of deliberations, reasoning and evaluation and sometimes depend on intuitions and instincts.
Types of Decisions
Organisational and Personal decisions
Individual and Group Decisions
Routine and Strategic decisions: Routine decisions are made repetitively following certain established rules, procedures and policies. On the other hand, Strategic decisions relate to policy matters and so require through fact finding and analysis of the possible alternatives.
Programmed and non-programmed decisions: see Herbert Simon and decision making process.
Policy and Operative decisions: Operative decisions are the ones taken by the lower management in order to put into action the policy decisions.
“Generic” and “Unique” decisions: These classifications have been given by Peter Drucker in his book “The practice of Management” and are similar to Herbert Simon’s programmed and non-programmed types.
Decision making process
According to Terry, administrative decision making involves the following steps:
To determine what the problem is.
Acquiring of general background information and different viewpoints about the problem.
To state to his immediate subordinate what appears to be the best course of action and to seek their opinion.
Investigating the proposition and taking the tentative decision.
To evaluate the tentative decision.
To make the decision and put it into effect; and
To institute a follow up and if need be, to modify the decision in the light of the results obtained in the follow up scrutiny.
Herbert Simon and the Decision Making Process
Herbert Simon is an American political and social scientist who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1978 in recognition to his outstanding contribution in analyzing the decision making process. His outstanding publications are: Administrative Behaviour (1947), Organisation (1958) and The new Science of Management Decision (1960). He is associated with the social systems school and visualizes organisational problem in its total and psychological context.
Simon equates ‘administration’ with decision making. His central interest lies in the decision making process which, to him, is the core of all administrative activity. According to Simon, any rational decision may be viewed as a conclusion reached from certain premises. These premises are of two different kinds- values and facts. The latter can always be evaluated as ‘correct’ or ‘incorrect’ in an objective and empirical sense, whereas this can not be applied to value premises. Simon maintains that to be scientific one must exclude value judgments and concentrate attention on facts, adopt precise definition of terms, apply rigorous analysis and test factual statements or postulates about administration. An administrative science like any science is concerned purely with factual statements. There is no place for ethical or value statements in the study of science.
According to Simon, there are three sequential steps in the overall process of making a decision. These are:
The Intelligence Activity: It means finding occasions calling for a decision.
The Design Activity: It means inventing, developing and analyzing possible courses of action.
The Choice Activity: It refers to selecting a particular course of action from those available.
The follow up (Implementation): He subsequently added this fourth activity or step in collaboration with James G. March.
Simon has distinguished between programmed and non-programmed decisions. He says decisions are programmed to the extent that they are repetitive and routine or a definite procedure has been worked out to deal with them. Decisions are non-programmed to the extent that they are new, unstructured or where there is no cut or dried method for handling a problem.
Administrative Behavior
Simon’s Bounded Rationality Model:
Simon disputes the concept of total rationality in administrative behaviour and holds that decisions have bounded rationality. He rejects the theory of total rationality. According to him, rationality is limited because of the following factors:
Dynamic nature of organisational objectives.
Imperfect information as well as limited capacity to process the available information.
Time and cost constraints.
Environmental forces or external factors.
Personal factors like preconceived notions, habits, etc.
Organisation factors like procedures, rules, channel of communication, and so on.
On account of the various organisational and personal factors, an administrator can not choose a best alternative, but has to be content with “satisfactory”, “good-enough” alternatives. He used the term “satisficing” which involves the choice of a course of action which is satisfactory or at least good enough. He suggests the utilization of computers to increase rationality.
Lindblom’s Incremental model:
In his article “The Science of Muddling Through” (1959), Lindblom advocated the Incremental model of decision-making. He observes that the actual decision making in administration is different from the way it is generally described in theory. Indeed, the decision makers always continue the existing programmes and policies with some modifications: what actually occurs in administrative decisions is ‘incrementalism’, that is, virtual continuation of the previous activities with few changes. Thus, Lindblom argues that the past activities and experiences are used by the administrators to make future decisions. He highlighted two concepts to describe the actual decision-making process in administration- ‘marginal incrementalism’ and ‘partisan mutual adjustment’.
Etzioni’s Mixed Scanning Model:
Etzioni in his famous article “Mixed Scanning: A Third Approach to Decision Making” (1967) has advocated an intermediate model that combines the elements of both rational model and incremental model. Hence, it is called a mixed scanning model.
Yehezkel Dror’s Optimal Model:
Dror in his book “Public Policy-making Re-examined” advocated public policy-model of decision-making.
Administrative problems involved in decision-making:
Incomplete information
Un-supporting environment
Non-acceptance by subordinates
Ineffective communication
Incorrect timing
It is a process of selection and the aim is to select the best alternatives. This process consists of four interrelated phases: explorative (searching for decision occasions), speculative (identifying the factors affecting the decision problem), evaluative (analyzing and weighing alternative courses of action), and selective (choice of the best course of action). In “The functions of the Executive”, Chester Barnard gave a comprehensive analytical treatment of decision making and noted, “The processes of decision are largely techniques of narrowing choices”. Following features of decision making can be identified:
It is a goal-oriented process.
A decision problem arises only when there are two or more alternatives.
It is a dynamic process. The techniques used for choice vary with the type of problem involved and the time availability for its solution.
It is situational. Decisions may change according to the circumstances.
It is a continuous process. Indeed, administrators job is perpetually a decision making exercise.
Decisions are the products of deliberations, reasoning and evaluation and sometimes depend on intuitions and instincts.
Types of Decisions
Organisational and Personal decisions
Individual and Group Decisions
Routine and Strategic decisions: Routine decisions are made repetitively following certain established rules, procedures and policies. On the other hand, Strategic decisions relate to policy matters and so require through fact finding and analysis of the possible alternatives.
Programmed and non-programmed decisions: see Herbert Simon and decision making process.
Policy and Operative decisions: Operative decisions are the ones taken by the lower management in order to put into action the policy decisions.
“Generic” and “Unique” decisions: These classifications have been given by Peter Drucker in his book “The practice of Management” and are similar to Herbert Simon’s programmed and non-programmed types.
Decision making process
According to Terry, administrative decision making involves the following steps:
To determine what the problem is.
Acquiring of general background information and different viewpoints about the problem.
To state to his immediate subordinate what appears to be the best course of action and to seek their opinion.
Investigating the proposition and taking the tentative decision.
To evaluate the tentative decision.
To make the decision and put it into effect; and
To institute a follow up and if need be, to modify the decision in the light of the results obtained in the follow up scrutiny.
Herbert Simon and the Decision Making Process
Herbert Simon is an American political and social scientist who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1978 in recognition to his outstanding contribution in analyzing the decision making process. His outstanding publications are: Administrative Behaviour (1947), Organisation (1958) and The new Science of Management Decision (1960). He is associated with the social systems school and visualizes organisational problem in its total and psychological context.
Simon equates ‘administration’ with decision making. His central interest lies in the decision making process which, to him, is the core of all administrative activity. According to Simon, any rational decision may be viewed as a conclusion reached from certain premises. These premises are of two different kinds- values and facts. The latter can always be evaluated as ‘correct’ or ‘incorrect’ in an objective and empirical sense, whereas this can not be applied to value premises. Simon maintains that to be scientific one must exclude value judgments and concentrate attention on facts, adopt precise definition of terms, apply rigorous analysis and test factual statements or postulates about administration. An administrative science like any science is concerned purely with factual statements. There is no place for ethical or value statements in the study of science.
According to Simon, there are three sequential steps in the overall process of making a decision. These are:
The Intelligence Activity: It means finding occasions calling for a decision.
The Design Activity: It means inventing, developing and analyzing possible courses of action.
The Choice Activity: It refers to selecting a particular course of action from those available.
The follow up (Implementation): He subsequently added this fourth activity or step in collaboration with James G. March.
Simon has distinguished between programmed and non-programmed decisions. He says decisions are programmed to the extent that they are repetitive and routine or a definite procedure has been worked out to deal with them. Decisions are non-programmed to the extent that they are new, unstructured or where there is no cut or dried method for handling a problem.
Administrative Behavior
Simon’s Bounded Rationality Model:
Simon disputes the concept of total rationality in administrative behaviour and holds that decisions have bounded rationality. He rejects the theory of total rationality. According to him, rationality is limited because of the following factors:
Dynamic nature of organisational objectives.
Imperfect information as well as limited capacity to process the available information.
Time and cost constraints.
Environmental forces or external factors.
Personal factors like preconceived notions, habits, etc.
Organisation factors like procedures, rules, channel of communication, and so on.
On account of the various organisational and personal factors, an administrator can not choose a best alternative, but has to be content with “satisfactory”, “good-enough” alternatives. He used the term “satisficing” which involves the choice of a course of action which is satisfactory or at least good enough. He suggests the utilization of computers to increase rationality.
Lindblom’s Incremental model:
In his article “The Science of Muddling Through” (1959), Lindblom advocated the Incremental model of decision-making. He observes that the actual decision making in administration is different from the way it is generally described in theory. Indeed, the decision makers always continue the existing programmes and policies with some modifications: what actually occurs in administrative decisions is ‘incrementalism’, that is, virtual continuation of the previous activities with few changes. Thus, Lindblom argues that the past activities and experiences are used by the administrators to make future decisions. He highlighted two concepts to describe the actual decision-making process in administration- ‘marginal incrementalism’ and ‘partisan mutual adjustment’.
Etzioni’s Mixed Scanning Model:
Etzioni in his famous article “Mixed Scanning: A Third Approach to Decision Making” (1967) has advocated an intermediate model that combines the elements of both rational model and incremental model. Hence, it is called a mixed scanning model.
Yehezkel Dror’s Optimal Model:
Dror in his book “Public Policy-making Re-examined” advocated public policy-model of decision-making.
Administrative problems involved in decision-making:
Incomplete information
Un-supporting environment
Non-acceptance by subordinates
Ineffective communication
Incorrect timing
Public admn
Civil Services Examination Strategy For Public Administration
Given the time constraint, a well-thought out strategy makes the difference between success and failure. Intensive and focused approach built on analysis needs to be scrupulously adhered to. Some ingredients of a 'smart strategy' are:
Building a general overview
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Perusal of question papers of previous years
Identification of 'thrust areas' for concentrated pursuit
Examination-bias
Adequate writing practice for time management and evolving right content
Continuous review of performance and appropriate corrections
At least two weeks before the examination, writing exercises should be stopped and the entire attention should be on revision.
Every candidate appearing for the mains examination should be conversant with the fundamentals of the structure, process, behaviour and environment of the administrative system. It's equally important that the student should be conversant with the contemporary and the current developments of socio-political and economic nature that have a close bearing on the functioning of the administration. For example, changing governors; direct grants to panchayats; economic reforms with a human face; globalisation and administration; second generation reforms and the social infrastructure; right to information and participative development. Amassing information is a big 'don't'. Candidates should be able to identify 'core areas' which cannot be avoided in the context of the mains examination and consolidate. Most importantly, study and writing practice should reinforce each other. Writing practice holds the key to success. It ensures legibility, time management and adherence to word limit. Effective introduction, logical build up and balanced conclusion send the right signals to the evaluator. Every question needs to be studied carefully to understand the exact requirements. For instance, some years ago, in the mains examination, the office of the Prime Minister was given and some took it for Prime Minister's Office. Several times, the questions are general in nature and not direct. For example, criminalisation of politics and politicisation of crime; public sector enterprises are neither public nor enterprises; recruitment of recruiters needs to be streamlined and planning in India needs to be depoliticised. For short questions, answers should be direct and precise. In a long essay, introduction should be appealing and effective. Elaboration of the theme should be properly prioritised. Sequencing should be done in such a manner that one paragraph logically follows from another. Depending upon the paper I or II, apt illustrations add value. While answering a question on welfare administration, the concept of welfare needs to be supplemented with the initiatives undertaken by the government highlighting the different types of programmes, the coverage and the resource profile. Unlike general studies, public administration requires interpretative skills, ability to correlate theory and practice; and synchronise conventional with the current. For example, presidential activism in India; budget as an instrument of socio-economic transformation; citizen-administration interface and e-governance; regulation and development; development and delivery models.
Paper I Administrative theory : Section - A
Theories of Administration: Scientific Management, Human Relations' School, Bureaucratic Theory and Systems Approach - These are all essential theories and students need to focus on critical aspects, which is not there in General Studies (GS). Students need to be exhaustive with their preparation, which should be based on 3Cs - comprehensive, clarity and critical approach. Structure of Public Organisations: In GS, a general approach to public sector is required whereas in Public Administration, the approach to this is actually amplification of government policy. Few years ago, a question in the main stage in the Public Administration paper was, `Welfare obligation of public sector has been abandoned in the era of liberalisation''.This question will never come in GS.The nature of this question is provocative and you need to respond with a positive attitude. Your reply could begin with:''Public sector still fulfil nation's goal of welfare....'' Or, there might be a question which says, ''Since 1967, position of governor has been politicised''. Administrative Behaviour: This topic is a real challenge and students need to be thorough with a concept like motivation. They need to be thorough with atleast three thinkers which include Maslow, Herzberg and Macgregor. They need to make a comparative account of all three of them. The year preceding, a quotation from Macgregor's original book of quotation was given. Accountability and Control: We are in a parliamentary system and students need to be clear about Parliament and its functions. They should read books on governance by Arun Shourie and Bimal Jalan. They also must be conversant on how Parliament functions in all aspects.
Section B
Administrative Reforms: This is a dynamic area as the emphasis is on technology. Students need to be thorough with legislations like Right to Information, rendering administration through people-centric institutions like panchayats and nagar palikas. Concepts like social auditing and participatory governance need to be studied in detail. Comparative Public Administration: You need to read thinkers like Riggs. Earlier, public administration was centred around Western concepts whereas the focus is now on third world countries like India. Students are expected to be familiar with issues like governance, rural development, privatisation and human rights in Brazil, China and South Africa. Development Administration: Students need to approach this topic with an open mind and with some amount of reading. They need to follow international trends on how technology is impacting administration across third world and elsewhere. This is relevant for India as there is a political dimension to the whole concept as it deals in issues like federalism and decentralisation. It has a dimension of administration where you deal with various aspects like poverty alleviation, empowerment, retraining and administration machinery. Public Policy: It's a challenging topic and students need to be aware about Dror who spoke maximum on issues related to public policy. Students need to be aware of how the country is developing particularly on issues related to disinvestments. Students need to be aware of anti-poverty programmes and how employment-generation schemes have evolved all these years. Financial Administration: This topic is routed in Indian practices. You have issues like Parliament and Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) and how do they function but students have to be absolutely clear on these issues.There is premium on latest knowledge like the PM's and finance minister's recent speeches as well.
Paper II Indian Administration : Section - A
Evolution of Indian Administration: Areas which are crucial include criminalisation of politics and politicisation of crime, President's rule, Federal system in context of coalition government, fiscal and monetary policy. Constitutional framework: President, Parliament and judiciary: These are important but students should not follow the conventional mode while preparing for main paper. Questions are generally twisted and they need to muster facts while giving right interpretation. Like in GS, the questions will deal with discretionary power of Governor (Article 116) whereas for public Administration, they might ask, ''Governor is an agent of centre''. Similarly in GS, the question might be based on Panchayati Raj System based on 73rd amendment. In Public Administration, they might ask, ''Panchayats are not development delivery vehicle, they are an independent tier of governance in true Gandhian spirit''. Students need to read national dailies to prepare for these kind of topics. Union Government and Administration: The focus is on Prime Minister's Office (PMO) and Cabinet Secretariat. The PMO has acquired enormous importance during the last three to four decade. Students should focus on how the relationship between PMO and Cabinet Secretariat has evolved under these c i rc u m s t a n ce s. Newspapers and journals should be good source of information on this issue. State Government and Administration: Students need to be thorough with the Sarkaria Commission's report on Centre-State relations and National Commission to Review the Working of Constitution report which was submitted in 2002 District Administration and Local Government: The changing role of collector vis-a-vis technology, District Rural Development Authority, District Development Authority, structure of panchayats and nagar palikas. There should focus on on issues like Right to Information, Cyber Governance.
Section B
Public Services: There should be focus on UPSC, State Public Service Commissions and how ''recruiters should be properly recruited''. The constitutional aspect and functions of these institutions need to be studied. Control of Public Expenditure: Sections like Parliament and CAG have already been dealt in paper I. They need to further focus on Public Interest Litigation, judicial activism which includes extra ordinary intervention by Supreme Court and High Courts in order to restore dwindling public faith in system because of declining public morality at highest level. Administrative Reforms: Queries on Right to Information, social audit, panchayati raj, Voluntary R e t i re m e n t Schemes are part of the administrative reforms. Machinery for Planning: Student need to focus on Planning Commission and how the role has changed during all these years. They need to find out that whether Planning Commission should be merged with Finance Commission in the context of liberalisation. Students can gather information from national newspapers, periodical and journals. Administration of Law and Order: The role of central and state agencies in the maintenance of law and order and articles published on these issues should be given top priority Welfare Administration: This is an evolving area and there is no specific reading material available on this issue. Students need to go through annual report of Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. Writing: Application is the key while writing this paper. Avoid jargon and abbreviation, be precise. Premium is on accuracy, insightfulness and application.
Given the time constraint, a well-thought out strategy makes the difference between success and failure. Intensive and focused approach built on analysis needs to be scrupulously adhered to. Some ingredients of a 'smart strategy' are:
Building a general overview
(more content follows the advertisement below)A D V E R T I S E M E N T
GA_googleFillSlot("OneStopIAS-MiddleBanner");
Perusal of question papers of previous years
Identification of 'thrust areas' for concentrated pursuit
Examination-bias
Adequate writing practice for time management and evolving right content
Continuous review of performance and appropriate corrections
At least two weeks before the examination, writing exercises should be stopped and the entire attention should be on revision.
Every candidate appearing for the mains examination should be conversant with the fundamentals of the structure, process, behaviour and environment of the administrative system. It's equally important that the student should be conversant with the contemporary and the current developments of socio-political and economic nature that have a close bearing on the functioning of the administration. For example, changing governors; direct grants to panchayats; economic reforms with a human face; globalisation and administration; second generation reforms and the social infrastructure; right to information and participative development. Amassing information is a big 'don't'. Candidates should be able to identify 'core areas' which cannot be avoided in the context of the mains examination and consolidate. Most importantly, study and writing practice should reinforce each other. Writing practice holds the key to success. It ensures legibility, time management and adherence to word limit. Effective introduction, logical build up and balanced conclusion send the right signals to the evaluator. Every question needs to be studied carefully to understand the exact requirements. For instance, some years ago, in the mains examination, the office of the Prime Minister was given and some took it for Prime Minister's Office. Several times, the questions are general in nature and not direct. For example, criminalisation of politics and politicisation of crime; public sector enterprises are neither public nor enterprises; recruitment of recruiters needs to be streamlined and planning in India needs to be depoliticised. For short questions, answers should be direct and precise. In a long essay, introduction should be appealing and effective. Elaboration of the theme should be properly prioritised. Sequencing should be done in such a manner that one paragraph logically follows from another. Depending upon the paper I or II, apt illustrations add value. While answering a question on welfare administration, the concept of welfare needs to be supplemented with the initiatives undertaken by the government highlighting the different types of programmes, the coverage and the resource profile. Unlike general studies, public administration requires interpretative skills, ability to correlate theory and practice; and synchronise conventional with the current. For example, presidential activism in India; budget as an instrument of socio-economic transformation; citizen-administration interface and e-governance; regulation and development; development and delivery models.
Paper I Administrative theory : Section - A
Theories of Administration: Scientific Management, Human Relations' School, Bureaucratic Theory and Systems Approach - These are all essential theories and students need to focus on critical aspects, which is not there in General Studies (GS). Students need to be exhaustive with their preparation, which should be based on 3Cs - comprehensive, clarity and critical approach. Structure of Public Organisations: In GS, a general approach to public sector is required whereas in Public Administration, the approach to this is actually amplification of government policy. Few years ago, a question in the main stage in the Public Administration paper was, `Welfare obligation of public sector has been abandoned in the era of liberalisation''.This question will never come in GS.The nature of this question is provocative and you need to respond with a positive attitude. Your reply could begin with:''Public sector still fulfil nation's goal of welfare....'' Or, there might be a question which says, ''Since 1967, position of governor has been politicised''. Administrative Behaviour: This topic is a real challenge and students need to be thorough with a concept like motivation. They need to be thorough with atleast three thinkers which include Maslow, Herzberg and Macgregor. They need to make a comparative account of all three of them. The year preceding, a quotation from Macgregor's original book of quotation was given. Accountability and Control: We are in a parliamentary system and students need to be clear about Parliament and its functions. They should read books on governance by Arun Shourie and Bimal Jalan. They also must be conversant on how Parliament functions in all aspects.
Section B
Administrative Reforms: This is a dynamic area as the emphasis is on technology. Students need to be thorough with legislations like Right to Information, rendering administration through people-centric institutions like panchayats and nagar palikas. Concepts like social auditing and participatory governance need to be studied in detail. Comparative Public Administration: You need to read thinkers like Riggs. Earlier, public administration was centred around Western concepts whereas the focus is now on third world countries like India. Students are expected to be familiar with issues like governance, rural development, privatisation and human rights in Brazil, China and South Africa. Development Administration: Students need to approach this topic with an open mind and with some amount of reading. They need to follow international trends on how technology is impacting administration across third world and elsewhere. This is relevant for India as there is a political dimension to the whole concept as it deals in issues like federalism and decentralisation. It has a dimension of administration where you deal with various aspects like poverty alleviation, empowerment, retraining and administration machinery. Public Policy: It's a challenging topic and students need to be aware about Dror who spoke maximum on issues related to public policy. Students need to be aware of how the country is developing particularly on issues related to disinvestments. Students need to be aware of anti-poverty programmes and how employment-generation schemes have evolved all these years. Financial Administration: This topic is routed in Indian practices. You have issues like Parliament and Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) and how do they function but students have to be absolutely clear on these issues.There is premium on latest knowledge like the PM's and finance minister's recent speeches as well.
Paper II Indian Administration : Section - A
Evolution of Indian Administration: Areas which are crucial include criminalisation of politics and politicisation of crime, President's rule, Federal system in context of coalition government, fiscal and monetary policy. Constitutional framework: President, Parliament and judiciary: These are important but students should not follow the conventional mode while preparing for main paper. Questions are generally twisted and they need to muster facts while giving right interpretation. Like in GS, the questions will deal with discretionary power of Governor (Article 116) whereas for public Administration, they might ask, ''Governor is an agent of centre''. Similarly in GS, the question might be based on Panchayati Raj System based on 73rd amendment. In Public Administration, they might ask, ''Panchayats are not development delivery vehicle, they are an independent tier of governance in true Gandhian spirit''. Students need to read national dailies to prepare for these kind of topics. Union Government and Administration: The focus is on Prime Minister's Office (PMO) and Cabinet Secretariat. The PMO has acquired enormous importance during the last three to four decade. Students should focus on how the relationship between PMO and Cabinet Secretariat has evolved under these c i rc u m s t a n ce s. Newspapers and journals should be good source of information on this issue. State Government and Administration: Students need to be thorough with the Sarkaria Commission's report on Centre-State relations and National Commission to Review the Working of Constitution report which was submitted in 2002 District Administration and Local Government: The changing role of collector vis-a-vis technology, District Rural Development Authority, District Development Authority, structure of panchayats and nagar palikas. There should focus on on issues like Right to Information, Cyber Governance.
Section B
Public Services: There should be focus on UPSC, State Public Service Commissions and how ''recruiters should be properly recruited''. The constitutional aspect and functions of these institutions need to be studied. Control of Public Expenditure: Sections like Parliament and CAG have already been dealt in paper I. They need to further focus on Public Interest Litigation, judicial activism which includes extra ordinary intervention by Supreme Court and High Courts in order to restore dwindling public faith in system because of declining public morality at highest level. Administrative Reforms: Queries on Right to Information, social audit, panchayati raj, Voluntary R e t i re m e n t Schemes are part of the administrative reforms. Machinery for Planning: Student need to focus on Planning Commission and how the role has changed during all these years. They need to find out that whether Planning Commission should be merged with Finance Commission in the context of liberalisation. Students can gather information from national newspapers, periodical and journals. Administration of Law and Order: The role of central and state agencies in the maintenance of law and order and articles published on these issues should be given top priority Welfare Administration: This is an evolving area and there is no specific reading material available on this issue. Students need to go through annual report of Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. Writing: Application is the key while writing this paper. Avoid jargon and abbreviation, be precise. Premium is on accuracy, insightfulness and application.
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